Plasma Torch
US Patent # 3,122,212: Method & Apparatus for
Drilling of Rock ~
High voltage /low current is introduced to an air-fuel flame to
drill rock.
USP # 3,443,639: Consolidating Sand w/ Plasma Jet ~
Boreholes are consolidated by fusion of sand w/ a plasma
torch.
WIPO Patent # WO 01/33056 A1 ~ PCT/US00/25293 (1
May 2001): Low Power Compact Plasma Fuel Converter ~
Fuel-air mixture is treated w/ ~40 KV @ ~ 10 milliamps to 1 amp
to reform the fuel by glow discharge. The High-V/Low-A
Plasmatron is low cost, has long electrode life, uses a simple
power supply & control, & eliminates need for an air
compressor. A catalytic reaction zone can be added downstream.
US Patent Application 2002/0012618 A1 (Jan. 31, 2002):
Plasmatron-Catalyst System ~
The system generates hydrogen-rich gas by catalytic reformation
of air-fuel-water/steam. The system increases H yield and
decreases the amount of carbon monoxide.
Koks, Smola, Gaz (Pol.) 29(8-9) 215-217 (1984) ~ Chemical
Abstracts
(CA) 102:151899 ~ Gasification of lignite by low
temperature H plasma ~
Highest yields of C2H2 (25.3% based on converted coal) and CO
(19.8 %) were obtained w/ countercurrent powdered coal-plasma
flow. In addition to C2H2 and CO, the reaction also gave C2H4,
CO2, and C6H6.
Japan Patent # JP 11-3,542,900 (1999): Pulverized Coal Igniting Plasma Torch
USP # 4,487,683 ~ (CA 102:81593): Acetylene from Coal
& Electric Arc ~
Pulverized coal & methane is introduced into an electric arc
to form a plasma at 8000-10,000* F, which is then cooled to
5000-6000 & held @ this temp for ~ 60 ms. Liquid slag &
product exit. Product contains primarily C2H2, C6H6, & a
medium BTU fuel gas.
Radio Frequencies
Hungarian Patent # 19,498 ~ (CA 95:135690) ~ Coal
Refining by GHz EMF ~
Lower quality coals, lignites, and oil shales were fractionated
by treatment in high freq. EM fields at 100-160*. Thus, a
lignite (caloric value 1700 KCal/kg, H2O 51%, ash 13%) was
heated 46 minutes in a 2.55 GHz EM field at 120* in air to give
a coal with calorific value 4649 Kcal/kg containing 51.3% C,
8.4% H2O, and 15.4% ash plus 350 gr H2O, oil & gas 10 gr,
& tar 32 gr/kg
Belgian Patent # 481,314 ~ (CA 44:3246) ~ Conversion of
Crude Oils & Shale Oils into Gasoline by Ultra-Short EM
Waves ~
“Very short EM waves produce an effect similar to thermal
cracking but at a lower temperature & w/ higher yields.”
French Patent # 973,715 ~ (CA 47:2461) ~ Destructive
Hydrogenation @ Low Temp & Low Pressure w/ Radio Frequencies
(1-3 MHz) ~
Stationary waves are established w/ points of high T & P
& conditions that usually are obtainable only in an
autoclave can be obtained in contact w/ atmosphere. Shale,
lignite, coal, peat, &c., are treated to produce oxides,
aldehydes, alcohols or acids.
German Patent # DE 901,048 (7 Jan. 1954) ~ Gas Reactions
in a Magnetic Field ~
Gas reactions in a magnetic field w/ Si & Ni alloy w/ Co
& Fe (catalysts for oil cracking) increases susceptibility.
Lines of force concentrate in the reaction space, & side
reactions are prevented. The catalyst can be made to vibrate by
interruption of the magnetic field (i.e., magnetostriction
ultrasonics)
Oil Shale Symp. Proc. 12: 283-298 (1979) ~ (CA
92: 211198 ) ~ Comparison of Dielectric Heating & Pyrolysis
of USA Oil Shales ~
Dielectric heating is advantageous in terms of rate of heating,
product recovery, effects of gas pressure, temp distribution,
net energy ratios, in-situ gasification, & U leaching.
Japan Patent JP 84 49,292 ~ (CA 101 113850) ~
Microwave Molding of Lignite ~
Lignite is softened at 120* by microwave heating @ 2450 MHz and
molded (400 kg/cm)
Ultrasound
Report DOE/PC/30143-T4 ~ Energy Res. Abstr. 7(10),
Abstr. # 27651 (1982) ~ (CA 97:58220 ) ~ Ultrasonic Coal
Cleaning ~
Ultrasonic activation of several coal cleaning processes in all
cases "demonstrated effects that would translate in production
to processing efficiencies and/or capital equipment savings.
Specifically, in the chlorinolysis process, pyritic S was
removed 23 times faster w/ ultrasonics than w/o it. In NaOCl
leaching, the total S extraction rate was 3 times faster w/
ultrasound. Two benefits were seen w/ oxydesulfurization:
ultrasonics doubled the reaction rate and at slightly
accelerated rates allowed a pressure reduction from 960 to 500
psi".
British Patent # 737,555 ~ (CA 50:6109):
Ultrasonic Gasification of Lignite ~
Gas-gas & gas-aerosol reactions are increased several
hundred times by passing a supersonic shock wave through the
mixture. Lignite dust having a caloric value of 5060 Kcal/kg is
gasified in air at 1200-1700* & 0.8-1.5 atmospheres to give
a gas having a caloric value of 745 KCal/cu meter by passing a
shock wave of 125 MHz/sec through the mixture. The shock wave is
generated by the periodic compression obtained by the exothermic
reaction of coal dust with air.
Gov. Rep. Announce. Index (US) 90(23), Abstr. # 060,438
(1990) ~ Report, 1990, GRI-90/-163.1; Order #PB90-269622 ~ CA
115:32418 ~ Ultrasonic Gasification of Coal ~
Numerous operating conditions, catalysts & reactor
configurations; "Overall, at the conditions and with the
catalysts and slurry media tested, ultrasound was not effective
in sustaining coal gasification reactions. The most favorable
results were obtained w/ lignite-water slurry irradiated w/ high
intensity ultrasound w/ KOH catalyst @ 550 F & 1050 psig.
After 1 hour sonification, the C conversion to gas was about
5%... Ultrasound significantly increased the types &
quantities of components that were solubilized... and reduced
the particle size of lignite..."
French Patent # 973,715 ~ Cracking of Lignite &
Shale w/ Ultrasound ~
Hydrogenation of oil shale & lignite @ low temperature &
low w/ 1-3 MHz ultrasound.
USP # 2,722,498 ~ Ultrasonic Extraction of Oil Shale ~
Solvent extraction of shale oil is improved w/ ultrasound (400
KHz). The amount of organic material extracted is tripled and
the time required is reduced by 90%.
USP # 4,280,558 ~ (CA 95:153539) ~ Ultrasonic Recovery
of Oil from Sand ~
Water is pumped into an oil-bearing formation and ultrasound is
applied to drive out the oil.
USP # 4,151,067 ~ Ultrasonic Extraction of Oil Shale ~
Oil is separated from a slurry of oil shale by treatment w/
ultrasound.
Brazil Patent # PI BR 82 04,258 ~ (CA 99:161300) ~
Ultrasonic Extraction of Oil Shale ~
A mixture of powdered oil shale & bitumen is heated to
300-400* and treated w/ ultrasound. "The process produces a
higher yield than previous techniques, produces relatively few
and environmentally acceptable emissions, and uses a minimal
amount of water."
Brazil Patent # PI BR 80 08,635 ~ (CA 96:165417) ~
Ultrasonic Extraction of Oil Shale ~
Application of 20 KHz & 80 kg/cm2 to crushed oil shale for 1
minute generates internal temperatures up to 315*, liberating
petroleum extracts.
Brazil Patent # PI BR 81 06,361 ~ (CA 97:112397) ~
UV-Ultrasonic Gasification of Oil Shale ~
Pulverized oil shale & TiO2-RuO2-Pt catalyst & H20 are
irradiated w/ UV light @ 0.83u to give H & CO2. Ultrasound
is used to maintain movement of the particles.
Fuel 68(10):1227-1233 (1989) ~ (CA 111:198237 )
~ Ultrasonic Extraction of Coal ~
Ultrasound (0.455-1.46 W/cm2 ) can extract at least 58% of
mobile organic matter w/o rupturing any chemical bonds. The
average molecular weight of the extract is 340-1055
British Patent # GB 2,139,245 ~ (CA 102:64815) ~ Coal
Cleaning w/ Ultrasound ~
Coal slurry (pH 6-9) is agitated w/ ultrasound and separated by
centrifuging or froth flotation. A second treatment w/
ultrasound and ozone releases more contaminants.
Probl. Obog. Tverd. Goryuch Iskop. 5 (2): 70-80 (1976);
Increasing Effectiveness of Coal Flotation w/ Ultrasound ~ (CA
87:154619 ) ~
15 sec treatment increases yield of concentrates to 78%
(originally 66%). Exposure of slurry containing both collector
(kerosene) and frothing agent sharply decreased flotation
efficiency.
USP # 4,156,593 ~ (CA 91:94260) ~ Ultrasonic
Wet-Grinding Coal ~
Coal contaminants (e.g., pyrites, clay) are removed from coal
slurry @ relatively low temp & press & @ increased
throughput rates by an ultrasonic source. Pyrites are reduced
from ~ 30 % to ~ 0.7 %.
USP # 4,151,067 ~ ( CA 91:60105) ~ Ultrasonic Production
of Shale Oil ~
A slurry of pulverized oil shale is treated w/ ultrasound to
emulsify it. The emulsion is separated by aeration. "The process
has only moderate requirements for heat and energy".
An. Quim. 86(2):175-181 (1990) ~ Ultrasonic Extraction
of Tar Sand ~ (CA 113:234362 ) ~
Extraction of tar sands w/ a solution of sodium-silicate &
ultrasound produces bitumen w/ very low ash content &
virtually free of metals and asphaltenes, w/ ~ 95% cumulative
recovery (based on C content) in a continuous operation.
USP # 4,054,506 ~ (CA 88:25480) ~ Extraction of
Tar Sand w/ Solvent & Ultrasound ~
78% of the bitumen was removed in 60 sec; all of the bitumen was
removed in 4 extractions w/ 60 KHz
Japan Patent JP 81,127,684 ~ (CA 96:71736) ~
Ultrasonic Hydrogenation of Coal ~
Powdered coal & catalyst (CuCl2-AnCl2) was hydrogenated w/
ultrasound (20 KHz) for 1 hr to nearly double the yield of the
same reaction w/o ultrasound.
USP # 4,226,879 ~ (CA 93:222950 ) ~ Fluid
Resonator ~
A fluid resonator for recovery of oil, drilling,
emulsification, & secondary recovery of oil; the fluid flows
through and around cylinders positioned in the stream and
parallel to the flow causes ultrasonic vibrations in fluid.
Japan Patent # JP 97 40,980 ~ (CA 126: 253301) ~
Dry coal preparation for a wide range of particle sizes; high
efficiency removal of impurities (esp. sulfides).
Ranliao Huaxue Xuebao 24(4): 360-363 (1996) ~ Ultrasonic
Treatment of Coal Slurry ~ (CA 125:304721 ) ~
Ultrasound greatly decreases viscosity & improves static
stability of slurried coal; "All these results show that the
ultrasonic treatment is a practical method to improve the
high-load coal water slurry".
Prepr. Paper: Am. Chem. Soc., Div. Fue Chem 39(4):1223-7
(1994) ~ (CA 121:259407 ) ~ Deashing of Coal w/
Ultrasound ~
A crossbow filter w/ sonic waves radiated parallel to the
filtering surface prevents buildup of solids at filter medium,
eliminates clogging.
Proc. Intl. Conf. Coal Slurry Technol. 16: 323-334
(1991) ~ (CA 120: 275037 ) ~ Ultrasonic Ash/Pyrite
Liberation ~
Enhancement of ash & pyrite separation from coal by
pretreatmnt w/ ultrasound.
USP # 4,391,608 ~ (CA 99:90944) ~ Ultrasonic
Beneficiation of Coal ~
Slurried coal is deashed & desulfurized by treatment w/
ultrasound (20 KHz @ 0.7 W/cm2/30 min) followed by separation
& washing. Froth flotation alone resulted in coal containing
5.03% ash & 1.22% S. Ultrasonic treatment resulted in 4.07%
ash & 0.125% S.
USP # 4,537,599 : Ultrasonic Deashing/Desulfurization of
Coal ~
Sulfur, clay & pyrite are removed from slurried coal by
treatment w/ ultrasound
S. African Patent # ZA 80 06,424 ~ (CA 96:18067) ~
Ultrasonic Coal Cleaning ~
Slurried coal is irradiated w/ ultrasound to produce cavitation,
reduce particle size, & detach pyrites & ash from the
coal. The impurities are removed by density differences.
Japan Patent # JP 82,128,791 ~ (CA 98:56945) ~ Deashing
of Coal w/ Ultrasound ~
Slurried coal is deashed by ultrasound; ash content is reduced
from 14.1 to 5.4% by weight.
Japan Patent # JP 84,223,793 ~ (CA 102:206456) ~ Ultrasonic Deashing of Coal ~
Japan Patent # JP 84,142,289 ~ (CA 102:9523) ~ Ultrasonic Deashing of Coal ~
Japan Patent # JP 76,138,055 ~ (CA 87: 28575 ) ~ Removal
of Oil from Waste Water ~
Emulsified oil (1 liter) is mixed w/ inorganic salt (CaCl, 40
gr), flocculant or electrolytic surfactant & exposed to
ultrasound (20 KHz / 20 W / 10 min ) and settled 10 min,
followed by removal of the floated oil. Treatment reduced
wastewater content from 850 ppm oil & 1030 ppm COD to 15 ppm
oil & 65 ppm COD.
USSR Patent # 126,072 ~ Apparatus for Concentration of Coal Fines Using Ultrasound ~
Report DOE/PC/88883-T9 ~ Energy Res. Abstr. 17(4), #
8452 (1992) ~ (CA 118: 237345 ) ~ ElectroAcoustic
Dewatering (EAD) of Fine Coal ~
Pilot plant study for economic dewatering of -100 mesh &
-325 mesh coal by synergistic combination of electric &
ultrasonic fields in conjunction w/ conventional mechanical
processes.
Godishnik Upravlen. Geol. Prouch., Otdel A-12: 97-104
(1961/62) ~ Ultrasonic Extraction of Bituminous Material from
Sedimentary Rock ~
Ultrasonic vibration for 12 hrs nearly doubled the yield of
material extracted, w/ no change in the character of the
extracted bitumen.
Can. J. Chem. Engg. 61(5):697-702 (1983) ~ Ultrasonic Irradiation of Coal-Solvent Extraction ~
Japan Patent # JP 94,220,457 ~ (CA 121:304495) ~ Coal
Liquefaction w/ Ultrasound ~
A slurry of coal and solvent is liquefied in an high-pressure H2
atmosphere w/ a catalyst and ultrasound. See also: JP 94 108,062
& JP 94 108,061 & JP 94,108,060 (CA 121:13753 )
~ Powder Technology 40(1-3):187-194 (1984) ~ (CA
102:48468 ) ~ Selective Agglomeration of Coal Slimes w/
Ultrasound ~
Acoustic agitation is much more efficient than
mechanical-rotational agitation w/ an impeller mixer.
Sudovye Energ. Ustanovki 1981, pp. 21-24 ~ (CA
98:21738 ) ~ Ultrasonic Separation of Oil-Water Emulsion ~
10-15 minutes irradiation of unstabilized water-oil emulsions,
e.g., petroleum-containing ship wastewaters, w/ an asymmetric
sound field increases the rate of emulsion separation 15 times
compared w/ untreated emulsions.
Japan Patent 81,52,613 (CA 96:180491): Ultrasonic Mixing
~
Fuel oil & water are mixed & atomized in air by
ultrasonic apparatus designed to increase the efficiency of fuel
combustion.
J. Appl. Chem. 20(8): 245-251 (1970): Ultrasonic
Solubilization of Coal ~
"The amount of coal solubilized is a function of time &
particle size. The use of char prepared at the temperature of
maximum coal fluidity increased the amount of material
solubilized".
Wien. Mitt.: Abwasser-Gewasser 1971, 6, K1-K18 ~ (CA
79:57346 ) ~ Ultrasonic Clarification of Oil Industry Waste
Water ~
"Ultrasound provides an effective means for clarification of
waste water from the oil, metal , and pharmaceutical
industries..."
Neftepererab. Neftekhim. (Moscow) 10:14-16 (1981) ~
Ultrasonic Stabilization of Fuel ~
"Ultrasound disperses asphaltenes and tars present in diesel
fuels, thus improving their storage stability... Ultrasound (15
KHz) disperses all sedimenting impurities in a few minutes
giving stable fuels".
Japan Patent # JP 82,119,822 ~ (CA 97:219406) ~ Ultrasonic Emulsification of Oil-Water ~
USP # 4,126,547 ~ (CA 90:156672) ~ Ultrasonic Oil Spill Removal ~
Belgium Patent # BP 874,315 ~ (CA 91:177966) ~ Ultrasonic Preparation of Coal Slurries ~
Electro-Carbonization/Gasification
Univ. Missouri School Mines & Met., Bull., Tech.
Ser. No. 78 (1952), 84 pp.: The Process of Underground
Electrocarbonization ~
Review of methods used in 8 Euro countries & USA: chamber,
stream, borehole, filtration linking, and hydrolinking.
Electrocarbonization (EC) involves drilling boreholes,
installing steel pipe, pre-heating, electro-linking (~ 30 min),
EC (3-4 hrs), electro-gasification (w/ air/steam injection)
yields producer gas, 120-300 BTU. Electro-carbonization takes
place in a dumb-bell-shaped elliptical zone, the long axis being
fixed by the electrodes. Fire channel fractures form, and
considerable fusion occurs.
Producers Monthly 16(11):14-20 (1952) ~ (CA 50:
2151 ) ~
At a critical voltage level, current may be caused to flow
through an oil shale or sand bed, resulting in the gradual
development of a path of carbonized particles from one electrode
to another. Oil & gas are produced by low-wattage electrical
heating of shale and tar sand; the path of carbonization is used
as a heating element.
Electro-Osmosis
There are dozens of patents for various forms of electro-osmosis, some of which also may be applicable to coal. The following are specific to coal:
USP # 2,799,641 ~ Electrolytic Promotion of Oil Well
Flow ~
Pulsed DC stimulation of oil flow can double production.
USP # 3,417,823 ~ Electro-Osmosis of Oil Well Water ~
Water is electrically transported to the cathode and removed to
improve the permeability of the remaining oil.
J. Canadian Petroleum Technology 3:8-14 (Spring 1964): Electro-osmotic Increase of Reservoir Flow Rate ~
Electro-Chemical
USP # 4,043,884 ~ (CA 87:143348) ~ Electrolytic
Hydrogenation of Oil Shale ~
Kerogen is upgraded by extracting it from oil shale and
treatment w/ reductive electrolysis.
Sci. Technol. Oil Shale 1976, pp. 83-101 ~
Electrolytic Oxidation & Reduction of Oil Shale ~
Almost all the higher hydrocarbons are removed by the process;
about 73% of the hydrocarbons were oxidized & dissolved. See
also: USP # 4,045,313 ( CA 87:143372 ).
Report 1984, DOE/FE/60339-T2 ~ Energy Res. Abstr.
10(1), Abstr # 8 (1985) ~ (CA 102:169454 ) ~
Electrochemical desulfurization w/ simultaneous production of H
@ 75*, 1.2-1.3 V, almost 100% electrical efficiency, ~ 53%
removal of S. Addition of HI catalyzes reaction: 83% removal of
S.
USP # 4,043,885 (CA 87:143346 ) ~ Electrolytic
Removal of Pyrite from Oil Shale ~
75-95% of the total S is removed after 1-5 hr of electrolysis
and 83-95% of S converted to sulfate.
CA 85:49084 ~ Fuel 55(1):75-78 (1976) ~
Electrolytic Removal of Pyrite from Oil Shale ~
Electrolytic treatment of kerogen concentrates removes pyrite.
The process uses alkali existing in the shale as electrolyte.
USP # 4,045,313 ~ Electrolytic Recovery of Bitumen from
Oil Shale ~
About 75% of the organic hydrocarbons are oxidized &
dissolved in the alkaline electrolyte.
Proc. Electrochem. Soc. 84-5: 492-509 (1984) ~ Anodic
Oxidation of Coal Slurries ~
Up to 50% of the lignite slurry in NaOH @ rm temp &
electrolyzed (1.2 V) dissolved as humic acids (= fertilizer). An
increase in potential (2.5 V) gave more humic acids. Higher
potential decreases formation of humic acids. Other reaction
products: CO2 & H @ anode & cathode, & removal of
over 70% of total S.
J. Electrochem. Soc. 128(10):2097-2102 (1981) ~
Electrolysis of Coal Slurries ~
"Coal slurry electrolysis as a method for cheap H evolution is
not a good prospect, because of the low c.d. available after the
removal of Fe. [Add Fe?]
USP # 4,043,881 ~ (CA 87:143370) ~
Electrolytic Recovery of Oil From Retort Water ~
Electrolysis of shale oil retort water yields ammonia; 40-50% of
the total residue and 80-90% of the organic chemicals were
recovered at the anode. The COD value was reduced to ~ 65%.
USP # 3,915,819 ~ Electrolytic Purification of Oil ~
Sulfur is removed from crude oil and an electrolyte w/
low-V/High-A DC .
USP # 555,511 ~ Coal Battery ~
Coal logs (produced by LTC) in electrolyte (molten NaOH),
bubbled w/ air: "Average electrical HP developed: 2.16 HP ~
Average electrical HP used by air pump: 0.11 ~ Average net
electrical HP developed: 2.05 ... ~ Carbon consumed in pots per
electrical HP: 0.223 lb ~ Coal consumed on grate per
electrical HP: 0.336. "
Total fuel consumed per electrical HP: 0.559 ~ Electricity obtained from 1 lb of coal*: 1336 watt hours (32% of that theoretically obtainable) ~ (* 0.4 lb in pots & 0.6 lb on grate). Thus the efficiency of this particular generator was 12 times greater than that of the average electric light and power plant in use in this country, and 40 times greater than plants of corresponding size.
Fuel 28(1):6-11 (1949) ~ (CA 43:1664 ) ~ Production of Electricity from Coal by Electrochemical Means ~
Electrostatics
Chem. Engg. Commun. 108: 49-66 (1991) ~ (CA
116:43943 ) ~ Electrostatic [ES] Beneficiation of Oil
Shale ~
Oil shale pulverized to 5 microns can be completely liberated of
mineral inclusions from the organic matrix by electrostatic
treatment with a copper tribocharger. Kerogen is enriched from
12% in feed to ~ 34% in the product stream.
CIM Bull. 73(822): 51-61 (1980) ~ (CA 88:194216
) ~ ES Beneficiation of Fluidized Coal ~
"Recoveries & ash contents of beneficiated coal are
comparable to recoveries by water washing, but the dry process
avoids potential water pollution problems".
J. Powder Bulk Solids Technol. 1(3):22-26 (1977) ~
An ES separation tower & ES beneficiation loop were tested;
yields coking concentrate high in vitrinite and low in pyrite
& ash.
J. Coal Res. Inst. (Jap.) 2:97-104 (1951) ~ ibid.,
3:11-16
(1952)
~ (CA 49:7220 ) ~
ES beneficiation w/ 30-35 KV produced a concentrate of coal.
Suiyokaishi 15: 51-56 (1963): ES Concentration of Coal ~
Low-Fe coal is attracted to the corona-discharge rollers &
high ash/high-Fe coal is repelled.
Feiberger Forschungsh. A326: 161-165 (1964): ES
Enrichment of Coal ~
The coal concentrate w/ low-ash/Fe is attracted to the grounded
cylinder of a Huff separator. Coal particles w/ high ash/Fe are
repelled in the corona field. "Separation is more effective in
the corona field compared w/ that without corona discharge".
Nenryo Kyokai-shi 48(512):869-876 (1969): ES Separation
of Coal ~
Coal was concentrated in a Huff-type electrostatic separator w/
or w/o corona discharge (15-20 KV) The recovery rate was >96%
and the optimum relative humidity was nearly 60%.
Braunkohlenarchiv. 56:29-48 (1949) ~
Up to 94% of metal impurities can be separated from powdered
coal by ES treatment w/ 25 KV.
Obogaschen. Polenz. Iskop., Akad. Nauk SSSR, Inst. Gorn.
Dela 1960, pp 168-174 ~ ES Separation of Large Particles from
Coal ~
Pilot plant for electrostatic precipitation of large particles
from coal fines. Grounded collector electrode, DC corona
discharge. 90-95% efficiency.
Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundamentals 1(1):48-52 (1962) ~ ES
Mixing ~
ES forces produce an extremely fine dispersion w/o moving parts.
Nauch. Soob. Inst. Gorn. Dela (Moscow) 45:31-38 (1968):
Electroseparation of Coals ~
Corona discharge separation of coking coal used for sulfonation
gives simultaneous partial removal of coal impurities. Power
consumption: ~ 0.1 KW-br/metric ton. Efficiency: 90%
Magnetism
Magnetic Separation is a well- established technology that need not be treated here. The following example will suffice:
Coal Process Tech. 5: 19-23 (1979) ~ (CA
92:183360 ) ~ Coal Beneficiation w/ Magnetic Fields ~
"The process is useful in supplementing conventional dense-media
washing".